Jul 24, 2013
Pos-Oksidentalisme: Identitas dan Alteritas Pos-Kolonial
Jun 24, 2013
Filsafat Komunikasi Habermas
Sumber: @philomaarif #habermas
Habermas adalah filsuf kontemporer yg mengubah arah filsafat, sekaligus cara berpikir, bertindak dan bermasyarakat. Dia filsuf Jerman kontemporer yang mengangkat bahasa dan intersubjektifitas di ranah filsafat.
Pra Habermas, filsafat cenderung subjektif. Pasca Habermas, intersubjektifitas dikemukakan. Dialog ditekankan, ketimbang monolog.
Habermas menekankan intersubjektifitas dialogis seiring dengan posisi manusia sebagai hewan sosial. Sejauh manusia selalu perlu pihak lain, manusia harus bersosial, lalu berpolitik, dan tentu saja beretika dalam interaksi tersebut. Dalam bersosial, berpolitik dan berpolitik, manusia perlu rasio. Rasio perlu bahasa. Di situlah, peran penting bahasa bagi manusia.
Bahasa berfungsi jika dikomunikasikan. Komunikasi bergerak menuju kesepakatan. Sementara kesepakatan selalu perlu liyan. Jadi, bahasa dan sosial selalu berdialektika.
Kalau bahasa dan komunikasi bertujuan pada kesepakatan, bagamaimana kesepakatan itu diraih? Habermas menjawabnya dengan konsep fungsi-fungsi bahasa dan diskursus
Ada tiga unsur dan fungsi bahasa versi Habermas yg terinspirasi oleh Buhler. Tiga unsur bahasa tersebut adalah pembicara, pendengar, dan objek. Fungsi bahasa pada pembicara adalah ekspresi. Fungsi bahasa pada pendengar adalah bujukan. Fungsi bahasa pada objek adalah kognisi.
Diskursus adalah sarana untuk mencapai konsensus (kesepakatan) dengan memenuhi syarat keabsahan yg terkait dengan fungsi bahasa tersebut. Suatu diskursus dianggap sah bila perkataannya benar dan tepat untuk audien, serta disampaikan oleh orang yang terpercaya.
Artinya diskursus menuju konsensus perlu kebenaran teoritis tentang objek pembicaraan yang disampaikan dari proses kognitif. Diskursus menuju konsensus juga perlu ketepatan pembicaraan untuk audien yg diformat dengan bujukan estetik. Dan diskursus menuju konsensus harus disampaikan oleh pembicara yg terpercaya secara etis dalam mengekspresikan pembicaraannya. Jadi, diskursus menuju konsensus perlu unsur teoritis, etis dan estetis sekaligus, yang disampaikan dengan kognisi, ekspresi dan persuasi.
Itu syarat internal bagi konsensus yang ada di diskursus. Adapun syarat eksternal konsensus adalah tersedianya ruang publik. Ruang publik adalah kawasan yang dapat diakses oleh semua orang dalam kesetaraan. Pendahulu habermas menganggapnya semacam mitos. Ruang publik, seperti parlemen dan media massa, pada prakteknya memang tak sungguh-sungguh publik, karena hanya diakses orang-orang tertentu. Kepemikan harta/pendidikan jadi salah satu syarat laten memasuki ruang publik, sehingga kepublikan 'ruang publik' dipertanyakan.
Jika pendahu Habermas cenderung pesimis pada keberadaan ruang publik, maka Habermas justru optimis: ruang publik harus diupayakan benar-benar ada. Sebab, ruang publik adalah ruang yang memungkinkan keseteraan semua orang dalam kehidupan sosial. Cara untuk menjaga ruang 'publik' tetap milik publik adalah dengan menggiatkan dialog intersubjektif yang kritis.
Kritik bisa menyasar pada sisi eksternal atau sisi internal objek yg dikritik. Dalam hal ini, Habermas lebih menekankan kritik internal (kritik imanen), yaitu tinjauan yg menelusup ke dalam objek kritikan dengan cara mengikuti alur argumentasinya lalu menunjukkan kekeliruannya.
Habermas menerapkan kritik imanen terhadap ideologi, yaitu sesuatu yg dipercaya secara umum. Karena itu kritiknya disebut kritik ideologi. Selain mengkritik ideologi dia juga mendorong dialog intersubjektif untuk menjaga ruang publik melalui pewedaran diskursus menuju konsensus sebagaimana dibahas tadi. Inti gagasannya dalam hal ini adalah anjuran untuk menjaga menjaga ruang publik tetap publik, dengan menyelenggarakan dialog intersubjektif yg kritis, demi hidup bersama dengan baik.
Robillard's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
Littlejohn's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
Arneson's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
Fisher's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
My slide on his philosophy of commmunication is here
Habermas's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
He makes consensus as the goal of communication, which is achieved by discourse.
My slide on his philosophy of communication is here.
Heidegger's Philosophy of Communication: Slide
Apr 24, 2013
Estetika: Filsafat Keindahan
Apr 17, 2013
Aesthetics: Slide
The following is slides about aesthetics (in Indonesian language).
Apr 15, 2013
Islamic Ethics: slide
Apr 8, 2013
Ethics: slide
You may read the slide about ethics by clicking this. (in Indonesian language)
Axiology: Slide
All of us always make a value. But not all of us know what is value, and does our value is justified.
In the slides below, I describe a theory of value namely Axiology (in Indonesian language).
To read the slide, please click here.
Apr 7, 2013
Epistemology: slide
To take the slide please click here.
Metaphysics/Ontology: Slide
To take the slide, please click here
Metaphilosophy: Slide
To take the slide, please click here
Philosophy of Communication: Syllabus
Lecture slides will be displayed in this blog in Indonesian.
But the explanation of the classes will be written here in English, and can be translated into other languages.
To take the syllabus, please click here
Apr 3, 2013
E Pluribus Unum
Pluralisme adalah paham yang mengafirmasi keragaman yang ada. Yang ada terutama yang benar-benar ada dan yang nyata di ruang dan waktu itu banyak.
Ada kesatuan dalam keragaman. Di dalam diri kita, kita dapat menyebut psikis dan fisik yang beragam itu dengan satu nama orang. Berbagai suku dapat disebut sebagai satu bangsa. Berbagai kepercayaan bisa sama-sama ditandai sebagai agama atau ideologi. Artinya keragaman itu dapat disatukan.
Nama orang, bangsa, agama, ideologi dan kesatuan-kesatuan serupa itu, lebih bersifat simbolis dan ditangkap oleh rasio.
Penyatuan Itu bisa berlaku represif. Di ranah berbangsa dan bernegara, Indonesia pernah mengalami hal itu di era Orde Baru. Keragaman individu dan masyarakat dibungkam, diharuskan menyatu dalam bingkai yang dibuat negara. Di ranah keagamaan, penganut keyakinan mayoritas juga dapat mengejawantahkan persatuan represif, ketika melarang penafsiran yang berbeda dari keyakinan arus utama, dan menganggap penafsiran lain itu sebagai kesesatan yang harus disingkirkan bahkan dibasmi.
Apr 1, 2013
Epistemology
Knowledge or 'episteme'
is one of the objects of philosophical thinking. Epistemology is the branch of
philosophy that dwells in the discussion of knowledge issues, such as: its
source, its limits and its measures.
Some of us negated
knowledge, such as Gorgias, one of the leading figures of Sophist. He claimed
the absence of something that can be known and communicated. He said, "There
is nothing. If something exists, it could not be known. If something known, it
could not be communicated."
Such statements based
among the relativity of sensing and arbitrariness of convention. The results of
sensory perception are very relative. In different distances or different point
of views, things can be perceived in different senses. Then, the nature of
things is not known certainly. Immanuel Kant, said that thing as such (das
ding an sich/noumena) cannot be known. What is known is merely the
appearance of thing (phenomena), which could be perceived and communicated
in variety. Maximally, there is convention to mention it. But the convention
was essentially arbitrary, as stated by Ferdinand de Saussure. Therefore, the
essence of something is unknown.
The mentioned conclusion
is true. But it is too premature to assume that knowledge is impossible. When skeptics
negated knowledge, at least they know that they do not know, as stated by Greek
philosopher, Socrates, "I know that I do not know". Ergo, there is knowledge,
which should be sought, not ignored.
The obligation to find
knowledge is related to the position of the human as being that does not merely
exist (être en soir). Human, as Aristotle said, is a rational animal (homo
rationale). Human is being for itself (être pour soir), says
Jean-Paul Sartre. Even more, human is being for others (être pour l'autre),
since " khairu an- nâs anfa’uhum li an-nâs (the best human is the
most beneficial human for others), as stated by Muhammad. So, human should seek
knowledge. Since, a person will not be able to benefit others without the
knowledge. "Fâqid ash-syai 'La yu'thî (people who do not have
nothing cannot give anything), said Arabic proverb.
The necessary thing to
be searched is knowledge, i.e. the certainty that stated statement is really
true and factual. The necessary thing to be shunned is ignorance, i.e. to know
nothing, or to know things incorrectly. The problem is where we get true
knowledge? How to get it? What is its limit? What is its parameter?
Sources and Methods of Knowledge
John Locke, the English
philosopher, states that knowledge comes from the senses. In the beginning,
human is like a blank white paper: tabula rasa. The sensory perception
fills this emptiness. Reason, then, links those sensory perceptions, to
generate knowledge.
Knowledge, in empirical
perspective, is achieved by utilizing five senses. Reason only served stringing
things accomplished by senses. Sense’s decision is the determinant of truth,
according to empiricists.
At the point of
determining the truth, the authority of senses is questionable. Sometimes,
senses result inconsistent decisions. At a certain distance, eyes are seeing water
on the road. But in place where water seems exist, there is no water. In such
cases, sense faces a mirage, and does not state the truth. Therefore, empiricists’
opinion is disputable.
The rationalist, such
as French philosopher, Descartes doubted the results of sensory perception. He
doubted everything, until realized that the only thing that he did not doubt is
a doubt. He doubt because he think. As far as self is thinking, self will aware
its own existence. At the moment, Descartes said “cogito ergo sum”. I
think, therefore I am.
Thoughts according to
the rationalists are the source of knowledge. There are potential ideas inside
every human. Senses are only particular factor to stimulate ideas
actualization. Without senses, reason can actualize its potential ideas. Reason
also can determine the rightness and the wrongness of knowledge.
Rationalists’ opinion
is true. Reason which is thinking a thought can generate a thought, as
mentioned by Al-Farabi, “al-‘aqlu al-âqilu al-ma’qûlu”. But statement that
reason is the only source of true knowledge is questioned statement. Because,
empiricist’s opinion also true that senses provide information for self
ignorance.
Both senses and reason
are equally as knowledge source. According to Immanuel Kant, reason can
produces a priori knowledge (without sensory experience), and senses can
produces a posteriori knowledge (with the sensory experience). Both could
be analyzed or synthesized. Analyzing rational thinking is analytical a priori.
Analyzing sensory experience is analytical a posteriori. Synthesizing rational
thinking is synthesis a priori. Synthesizing sensory experience is synthesis a
posteriori. In Kantian perspective, both senses and reason have great contribution
in generating knowledge.
But a priori knowledge
and a posteriori knowledge tends to make a distance between subject and object.
The distance is widened by the symbols which represent objects to be understood
by subject. Moreover the diversity of subject’s viewpoints makes a wider
distance. Therefore, sensory knowledge and rational knowledge are relative,
partial and mediated. Henry Bergson called it as discursive knowledge or
knowledge about things.
This French philosopher
proposed another model of knowledge which assumed as absolute, comprehensive
and immediate. This assumed knowledge is gained by immediate experience of
things; by internalizing object into subject. Bergson called it as intuitive
knowledge, or knowledge of things.
Unfortunately, Bergson
unawares that experience without symbolization is not communicated experience. It
is very subjective experience. So, its ‘achieved knowledge' is relative too. In
contrast, discursive knowledge is more objective and communicable. Therefore, it
is unfair to place discursive knowledge and intuitive knowledge on hierarchical
position.
Instead of stating that
intuitive knowledge is superior to discursive knowledge, I tend to equalize them.
Sensory knowledge, rational knowledge and intuitive knowledge has the same
degree in fulfilling the human to knowledge. Each has its own characteristics. As
long as they provide necessary knowledge for human being, they are in equal
position. I use same perspective to see parameters of knowledge.
Parameters of Knowledge
Rationalists measure
the validity of knowledge from the point of coherence. The definition of
coherence is the regularity of the relationship between ideas logically,
without any contradiction. The truth of a statement is measured from the point
of its consistency. As long as a statement has logical consistency without any
contradiction, it is valued as a truth.
At some points,
coherence can determine the truth. But to be glued only on the logical
consistence is not strong enough to determine the truth. Other parameters are needed to measure the
validity of knowledge. One of needed parameter of knowledge is correspondence.
If coherence is only focusing on the relationship between ideas, correspondence
is paying attention to the suitability of ideas with the real facts.
Suitability of ideas
and facts is important. Since, not all logical idea is factual. Ontologically, some
essence does not exist. The reality in space and time can make sure the truth of
rational ideas. Thus, correspondence can strengthen the truth of coherence.
The truth of knowledge
will be stronger if its coherence and correspondence was supported by its empirical,
intuitive, and pragmatic. Knowledge is empirical if its truth could be traced
by sensory experience. It is intuitive if could be directly experienced
personally. And it is pragmatic if it is useful in particular situations. If knowledge
contains all of those parameters, it will be more robust to be the truth.
Conclusion
Now it is clear what are
the sources, the methods and the measures of knowledge. Minimally, human
knowledge is derived from senses, reason, and intuition. Human will gain knowledge
if using those knowledge tools which exist in himself. Human also could get
knowledge from authority outside himself. But knowledge from outside self should
be reviewed by knowledge sources from inside self.
In order to get coherent
knowledge, human need to use his reason to think logically. He also needs to
find the fact of his knowledge to achieve correspondent knowledge. Achieved
knowledge will be stronger if experienced empirically and intuitively, and
assured its useful for self and others. By synthesizing all of those sources,
methods and parameters of knowledge, human being will obtain powerful knowledge
to be declared as the truth. (Zainul Maarif,
Jakarta, April 1, 2013)
Sources and Methods of Knowledge
John Locke, the English philosopher, states that knowledge comes from the senses. In the beginning, human is like a blank white paper: tabula rasa. The sensory perception fills this emptiness. Reason, then, links those sensory perceptions, to generate knowledge.
Parameters of Knowledge
Rationalists measure the validity of knowledge from the point of coherence. The definition of coherence is the regularity of the relationship between ideas logically, without any contradiction. The truth of a statement is measured from the point of its consistency. As long as a statement has logical consistency without any contradiction, it is valued as a truth.
Conclusion
Now it is clear what are the sources, the methods and the measures of knowledge. Minimally, human knowledge is derived from senses, reason, and intuition. Human will gain knowledge if using those knowledge tools which exist in himself. Human also could get knowledge from authority outside himself. But knowledge from outside self should be reviewed by knowledge sources from inside self.